WOMEN'S CLOTHING:

       The TUNICA is the basic women's garment, made from two panels of linen or fine wool at least 30 to 40 inches wide and reaching to the ankles when belted.  In its traditional form it is sleeveless, and the top edges are not sewn together but rather fastened every few inches by little knots of fabric or possibly small buttons of some sort (leading to the modern term "gap-sleeved" tunic).  The fabric is gathered in at these points, and apparently normal brooches or fibulae were not used as fasteners.  The knots sometimes look like they are held by thread wrapped around the base, and in other depictions seem to be more disc-shaped.  If they are buttons, they are not used with buttonholes since the front and back panels of the tunic touch at the fastenings but do not overlap.  From three to five fastening points on each side seems to be common, with as many as seven.  Nearly any appropriate color may be used, and there may be a wide band of a different color at the hem.

       There was also a much simpler form of tunica, very similar to a man's tunica, being sewn up the sides and along the top, and having short sleeves (six to eight inches long).  It can be worn belted or unbelted.  This was most often seen on lower-class or merchant-class women, freedwomen, slaves, and young girls.  Like the gap-sleeved tunica it may be any reasonable color, and may have a contrasting band at the hem.  Alternatively, it may have clavi, a pair of narrow vertical stripes front and back which reach from the top to the hem.  The clavi are about an inch or so wide, and can be from 10 to 20 inches apart (typically equidistant from each other and the sides of the tunica, but not always).  They were probably woven into the fabric originally (and most likely ran across the grain of the fabric since the selvege edges were used to form the top edge and hem), but may be sewn on for our purposes.

       The STOLA is the traditional distinctive garment of a married Roman woman or matron, worn over a gap-sleeved tunica.  At the top, the fabric is gathered into a pair of straps or narrow bands which go over the shoulders, causing the neck opening to form a V-shape--it appears that the neck opening is simply a vertical slit, rather than horizontal.  This is just one theory out of several, however!   The stola was properly long enough to cover the feet, and it is worn with a belt high under the bust.  By the first century AD, the stola is apparently falling out of everyday use, though it probably was still worn on formal or ceremonial occasions.

       An undertunic, probably sleeveless, can be worn with the short-sleeved tunica, but not with the gap-sleeved tunica.  It can be seen at the neck, and would presumably be white linen.

The PALLA (left) is a large rectangular wrap, at least 5' by 9'.  It is roughly the female equivalent to a man's toga, but was always worn by a decent woman in public, and could be put on in a number of ways.   Various wraps or cloaks were also worn, but like the palla these were draped or wrapped but not pinned.  (Photo copyright Jane Walker.)        The STROPHIUM is the Roman brassiere.  It is a band of soft linen 6" to 8" wide (or a folded wider strip), long enough to go around the body a number of times (six or seven for best results).  It can be worn in several ways, for example placing the center of the band at the back and crossing the ends in front to support the breasts, then wrapping the ends around and tucking them in at the back again.  Evidence is scarce, however, and pins or ties may have been used.          While the undertunic served as an undergarment, there are also references to the supparum, subucula, and (for matrons) indusium, which may all be slip-like garments, hanging from the waist.   Dancing or exercising girls are shown wearing "bikini briefs", and a pair of woman's panties made of leather have been found; it is believed that these may have been fairly common for wearing while exercising or playing sports at the baths, but not actually worn under clothing.        HAIRSTYLES were amazingly varied.  While upper-class women favored elaborate arrangements of curls and tiers, simpler hairdos involved coiled braids or a bun at the back.  Wigs were used, and those made with red or blond hair were desirably exotic.  Traditionally, girls and women tied their hair back with thin woolen bands called vittae, which were considered spiritual protection.  Mature Roman women would always cover their heads with a veil or part of the palla when out in public.

FOOTWEAR:

       There was a wide variety of shoes and sandals for men and women.  Most were constructed like military caligae, with a one-piece upper nailed between layers of the sole.  Many had large open-work areas made by cutting or punching circles, triangles, squares, ovals, etc., in rows or grid-like patterns.  Others were more enclosed, having only holes for the laces.  Some very dainty women's and children's shoes still had thick nailed soles.

       Some shoes had a one or two-piece upper of soft leather which enclosed the foot like a modern shoe.  The edges were nailed between the sole layers.  Traditionally, those worn by patricians, senators, and magistrates were called calcei, while common people wore perones.  But there is much confusion in terminology and most shoes which have nailed soles and are not caligae or sandals are referred to as calcei.  "Calcei senatorii" had soft leather uppers and were secured by wide straps which passed under the foot and crisscrossed up the lower leg.  They were red with small ivory crescents attached.  Equestrians are shown wearing an identical style, but apparently black in color.

       One-piece shoes called carbatinae were shaped like caligae/calcei, but had no outer or inner soles added.  Sandals were generally called soleae, and had nailed or stitched soles.  It is possible that heavy nailed shoes were for outdoor wear, while lighter sandals and carbatinae were worn "around the house".  (Also see Leatherworking Tips.) 

Besides open-work on the leather, shoes and sandals could be dyed, tooled, embossed, or even have gilded designs.

Socks (udones) were sewn of woven cloth, and could be worn for warmth or as decorative items.  In the latter case they would be brightly colored so as to show through the ornate open-work of the shoes, and might leave the toes and heel exposed.  Socks worn strictly for warmth were more likely fully closed and not necessarily so colorful.  Fancy shoes could also have a colorful cloth lining, eliminating the need for socks.